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What is electroshock therapy? -

Electroshock therapy, professionally referred to as electroconvulsive therapy, or ECT, is a treatment method used to relieve the symptoms of various mental disorders, such as otherwise treatment-resistant depression or schizophrenia, through medically-induced seizures.

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When did it start? -

ECT was developed in the late 1930s by two Italian scientists, Ugo Cerletti (pictured) and Lucio Bini. Seizures were already being medically induced to fight symptoms of mental illness using the drug Metrazol, but Metrazol also triggered an intense feeling of panic in patients before the seizures began. With ECT, Cerletti and Bini were trying to find a way to induce seizures in a more efficient, less harmful way.

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What is the controversy? -

While the potential benefits of ECT have long been scientifically proven, the history of its use is a dark and stained one. In the early days, ECT was administered without anesthetic and used as a threat against patients in residential hospitals. From the 1950s through the '70s, it was forcibly administered to patients deemed unfit to give consent.

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What is the controversy? -

ECT was also the treatment of choice in the barbaric conversion therapy practices for individuals with same-sex attractions that were popular in the 20th century. If that weren't enough to lead huge parts of the population to distrust ECT, one of its more detrimental side effects, widely documented in the memoirs of individuals who've undergone the treatment, is permanent and long-term memory loss.

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Revival -

Since ECT's revival in the 1980s, it has had its fair share of supporters and adversaries in the public eye. Let's now take a look at some celebrities who received ECT, and what they had to say about it.

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Carrie Fisher (1956-2016) -

Carrie Fisher, known the world over not only for portraying Princess/General Leia Organa but also for being a champion of mental health awareness, was an outspoken supporter of ECT and personally benefitted greatly from the treatment. She did acknowledge its drawbacks, however, and in her memoir 'Shockaholic' she stated, "The truly negative thing about ECT is that it’s incredibly hungry and the only thing it has a taste for is memory.”

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Tammy Wynette (1942-1998) -

Tammy Wynette, affectionately referred to as the "First Lady of Country Music," dealt with severe depressive episodes and drug abuse later in her career. In the 1980s, after suffering a mental breakdown, Wynette underwent ECT, and said of the experience "they were horrible, but they helped me."

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Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) -

Ernest Hemingway, the legendary American author of novels such as 'A Farewell to Arms,' was famously depressed and in 1961 took his own life with a shotgun. In the months beforehand, Hemingway had gone through a massive 20 rounds of ECT, which caused him to lose large swaths of his memory. In his own words, “it was a brilliant cure, but we lost the patient.”

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Vivien Leigh (1913-1967) -

'Gone with the Wind' (1939) star Vivien Leigh's experience with shock therapy was tragic and unsuccessful. Leigh was admitted to hospital by her husband, famed actor Laurence Olivier, in the 1950s after Leigh had begun to experience hallucinations while filming a movie. ECT was used liberally during her hospitalization, and even left burn marks on her forehead. The treatment did little for Leigh's afflictions, and Olivier claimed she turned into a different, diminished person after the shock therapy.

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Judy Garland (1922-1969) -

Judy Garland, eternally famous for starring in 'The Wizard of Oz' (1939), underwent numerous shock therapy sessions in her life in an attempt to treat her intense depression and persistent issues with substance abuse. Unfortunately, the treatments helps ease neither of these maladies, and in fact led Garland to make a number of attempts on her own life shortly after undergoing ETC.

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Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) -

One of the most famously troubled poets of the 20th century, Silvia Plath experimented with just about every form of therapy under the sun, including ECT. Her experiences with ECT, both good and bad, are expressed in her autobiographical novel 'The Bell Jar.' Of one of her first positive ECT experiences, Plath writes, "…and darkness wiped me out like chalk on a blackboard… I woke out of a deep, drenched sleep… All the heat and fear had purged itself. I felt surprisingly at peace."

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Lou Reed (1942-2013) -

Lou Reed, front man of the seminal rock band the Velvet Underground, was forced by his parents to undergo ECT treatment as a young college student. Reed, who was 17 at the time, had not consented to the treatment, and was traumatized by the experience and blamed it for his severe memory loss.

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Townes van Zandt (1944-1997) -

The influential American singer-songwriter Townes van Zandt, famous for writing the hugely popular and often-covered ballad 'Poncho & Lefty,' was forced to undergo ECT as a young adult after throwing himself off a roof in an episode of alcohol-induced psychosis. The treatment did little to ease his depression, but effectively wiped out his memory, and caused the songwriter to drop out of college and begin drifting.

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Yves Saint Laurent (1936-2008) -

While serving in the French military away from home, Yves Saint Laurent, who would go on to become a fashion icon but was then working for Dior, received news that he was fired and suffered a breakdown. Along with drug therapy and talk therapy, Laurent also underwent ECT, though the effects aren't well documented.

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Frances Farmer (1913-1970) -

American actress Frances Farmer, famous for her work in film but also for her tragic and tumultuous personal life, was involuntarily institutionalized numerous times after being diagnosed with schizophrenia. While in hospital custody, she underwent a number of ECT treatments, and while not completely detrimental, Farmer didn't think they helped her very much either, stating, "This was supposed to relax the tensions and keep us quiet, which it did. I don’t blame the hospital at all—I think that they did everything in their power to take care... but I really don’t think it helped me much."

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Sam Phillips (1923-2003) -

Sam Philips, the extraordinary record producer and founder of Sun Records, where he recorded and made famous the likes of Elvis Presley and Roy Orbison, suffered from depression for most of his life, and underwent two rounds of ECT without seeing very strong results.

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Carmen Miranda (1909-1955) -

Carmen Miranda, the massively popular Brazilian singer and dancer who became widely celebrated in the United States in the mid-20th century, went through a disastrous round of ECT treatment after moving to California. Miranda underwent ECT to treat her persistent depression, but came out the other end with significant gaps in her memory and personality. Some of those close to her described her as an "automaton" after the treatment.

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Edie Sedgwick (1943-1971) -

Edie Sedgwick, a New York socialite in the 1960s and collaborator of Andy Warhol, struggled with depression and drug abuse for most of her life. Her condition took a turn for the worse in 1967 after the death of her father. Following a drug overdose the next year, Sedgwick underwent a round of ECT treatment, but to no avail. Sedgwick died four years later.

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William Styron (1925-2006) -

Pulitzer Prize-winning author of novels such as 'Sophie's Choice,' William Styron fell into a near-catatonic depression at the turn of the 21st century. The writer decided to go through ECT treatment, and was pleased with the results. When asked about the treatment shortly afterwards, Styron said, "I'm feeling fine; I'm feeling better than I have in years."

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David Foster Wallace (1962-2008) -

David Foster Wallace, author of the sprawling 1996 masterpiece 'Infinite Jest,' famously struggled with depression for all of his life, until his untimely demise in 2008. It is documented that Wallace went through ECT at least once, but it didn't seem to help much.

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Bud Powell (1924-1966) -

Legendary jazz pianist and bandleader Bud Powell went through an excessive and experimental number of ECT sessions in the 1940s. After being brutally abused by police in Philadelphia, Powell began to act erratically on occasion, likely due to brain damage caused by the beating. While hospitalized for treatment, Powell is thought to have undergone no less than 40 rounds of what was then still a highly experimental treatment. Powell was never the same after his 'treatment,' and many of his friends suspected they were experimenting on the brilliant pianist.

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Gene Tierney (1920-1991) -

Gene Tierney was a celebrated yet troubled film star in the mid-20th century, famous for her leading roles in noir films. Following a number of personal tragedies, Tierney began to fall into episodes of depression and psychosis, and was eventually diagnosed with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. During the 1950s, she underwent 27 rounds of ECT, which severely damaged her memory and affected her ability to memorize scripts.

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Paul Robeson (1898-1976) -

Paul Robeson was a major figure of the Harlem Renaissance in the early 20th century, famous for his outspoken political views and for his starring roles in many of the stage plays written at the time. Robeson also suffered from bipolar disorder and occasional fits of paranoia, and received over 50 rounds of ECT as a result.

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Oscar Levant (1906-1972) -

One of the most adored television and radio personalities of the 20th century, Oscar Levant was also a champion of destigmatizing mental illness in the public eye, and talked openly about his own struggles and various treatments, including electroconvulsive therapy.

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Michael Moriarty (1941- ) -

Actor Michael Moriarty, who is perhaps best known for his time on the hit television show 'Law & Order,' had troubles with drug addiction and occasional erratic behavior during his career, and chose to undergo ECT as a result.

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Kitty Dukakis (1936- ) -

One of ECT's most outspoken supporters is Kitty Dukakis, author of the 2006 memoir 'Shock' and wife to former presidential candidate Michael Dukakis. Kitty Dukakis claims her long struggle with alcoholism and depression was completely turned around after agreeing to undergo ECT treatment.

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Clementine Churchill (1885-1977) -

Wife of former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Clementine Churchill faced numerous tragedies throughout her life that led to her institutionalization on more than one occasion. While hospitalized, she received a number of rounds of ECT, which all seemed to stabilize her condition for at least a period of time.

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Richard Cavett (1936- ) -

Richard Cavett, as a prolific interviewer and popular talk show host, was a major supporter of electroconvulsive therapy. Cavett, who underwent the therapy after years of no luck treating his depression with pharmaceuticals, described the shock treatment as a "magic wand."

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Antonin Artaud (1896-1948) -

Famous French avant-garde poet and performer Antonin Artaud suffered from delusions and paranoia for most of his life, and sometimes lashed out violently, leading to his detainment and hospitalization on numerous occasions. Once, while hospitalized in France during its fascist occupation in World War II, Artaud was administered more than 50 rounds of ECT, despite his pleas for the treatments to cease.

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David Helfgott (1947- ) -

David Helfgott, the Australian piano virtuoso whose story was made famous by the 1996 film 'Shine,' started experiencing occasional breakdowns and fits of psychosis from a young age, in no small part due to the pressures of his domineering father. After numerous rounds of ECT treatment, Helfgott began to recover and eventually thrive later in life.

Sources: (Scientific American) (Grunge) (The Journal of ECT)

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