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Astonishing expansion -

When the 1700s ended and the world moved into a new century, European nations held control over 35% of the world’s land. But over the course of a century until 1914, they expanded this territory to an astonishing 84%.

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Maps as weapons -

Cartography was not just a scientific endeavor at the time—it was a tool of conquest. As Europeans refined their maps, they gained not only geographical knowledge but also a strategic advantage. These maps legitimized territorial claims, guided military campaigns, and reinforced the myth of European supremacy over unfamiliar lands.

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Spain and Portugal set the stage -

The first European empires emerged through Spanish and Portuguese exploration. These nations divided the world between them and used naval power to establish early colonies. But as other European powers gained strength, the monopoly broke, which led to an era of fierce imperial competition.

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The corporation model -

The Dutch introduced a groundbreaking innovation: the corporate colonial model. By creating the modern shareholder corporation, they made colonization a business venture. European expansion accelerated as profit-driven businesses funded military expeditions and resource extraction in distant lands.

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The evolution of empire -

By the 19th century, European imperialism had evolved beyond simple conquest. A new, more systematic form of colonization emerged, powered by industrialization and advanced weaponry.

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A new strategy -

Instead of warring against each other, European powers realized they could achieve more through collaboration. They began holding diplomatic meetings, coordinating imperial policies, and negotiating the division of unclaimed lands.

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Africa, the final frontier -

By the early 19th century, Africa remained the last major landmass yet to be fully colonized. European knowledge of its interior was minimal, and for centuries harsh conditions had kept explorers at bay.

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The deadly barrier -

Tropical diseases like malaria from mosquitoes made African exploration deadly for Europeans. Up to 40% of those who ventured inland perished. This formidable natural defense kept Africa largely free from European colonization—until scientific breakthroughs provided the tools to overcome this deadly obstacle.

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Quinine -

In 1820, Europeans isolated a compound known as quinine, which is taken from the bark of a Peruvian cinchona tree. This compound is an incredibly effective malaria treatment, and so Europeans finally had a way to survive Africa’s deadly diseases.

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Ruthless ambition -

Belgium, a small European nation, sought to join the ranks of the great imperial powers. King Leopold II desperately wanted a colony, but no one was willing to give him land. Determined, he set his sights on Africa’s unclaimed territories and targeted the vast Congo Basin.

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An “empty” land -

European maps depicted Africa’s interior as a blank, uncharted space, ignoring the presence of thriving civilizations. This misconception fueled the idea that Africa was an untouched frontier, just waiting for European conquest.

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Colonial domino effect -

When Belgium began claiming African territory, other European powers panicked. Fearing that they would be left behind in the race for colonies, France, Britain, and Germany accelerated their own efforts. Within a few years, the entire continent was caught in a frenzy of conquest.

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The Berlin Conference -

In 1884, European leaders gathered in Berlin to formalize their division of Africa. They set new rules for claiming land, ensuring an 'orderly' scramble for the continent. No African representatives were invited, as European nations disregarded indigenous sovereignty.

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The rule of effective occupation -

Under new imperial guidelines, European nations had to physically control land to claim it. No longer could they just draw lines on a map—troops, administrators, and settlers had to establish real authority. This policy ignited an aggressive push to physically seize African territory.

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A breathtakingly fast conquest -

Within just a few decades, nearly all of Africa was under European rule, with land divided between empires. The speed of colonization was staggering, as advanced technology allowed European powers to subjugate vast regions with an efficiency never before seen in history.

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The Congo Free State -

Leopold established a personal colony in the Congo, which became a nightmare of forced labor, violence, and resource extraction. Millions of Congolese suffered under his brutal regime, as rubber and ivory were harvested for European profit.

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Infrastructure and technology -

Railways became the steel veins of empires, linking mines to ports and cities to battlefields. While they were touted as symbols of progress, these railways were built on the backs of African laborers and slaves, and served as arteries for extracting wealth rather than uplifting communities.

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Divide and conquer -

Rather than fighting entire populations, Europeans exploited local rivalries. They strategically allied with certain African groups and armed them against their neighbors. This manipulation created internal divisions that weakened resistance and made it easier for small European forces to dominate much larger populations.

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Advanced weaponry -

European armies wielded cutting-edge firearms and artillery, which allowed them to massacre indigenous forces with ease. The technological disparity was stark—entire African armies armed with spears and muskets were wiped out by machine guns, allowing small European contingents to conquer entire regions with minimal losses.

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A rise in resistance -

While much of Africa fell quickly, resistance movements did succeed in some areas. Ethiopia famously repelled an Italian invasion in 1896.

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A medical paradox -

Ironically, European colonization contributed to medical advancements. Research conducted in colonies led to a better understanding of diseases like malaria. While these breakthroughs helped Europeans conquer new lands, they also advanced global medical science and saved countless lives in later generations.

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The myth of European racial superiority -

Imperialists justified colonization by claiming that European civilization was inherently superior. This belief (reinforced partly by pseudo-science) portrayed colonial rule as a noble mission, despite its violent and exploitative realities.

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The distortion of Darwin’s theories - Many colonialists misinterpreted the scientific theory of evolution put forward by Charles Darwin, which led to Social Darwinism, a pseudo-scientific justification for racism. Europeans claimed that colonial rule was both inevitable and beneficial for so-called 'lesser' peoples.

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Science used to justify empire -

European scholars sought to legitimize imperialism by fabricating racial hierarchies. They measured the skulls of indigenous people and built theories that made Europeans appear as the pinnacle of human civilization, which ultimately fueled policies of segregation and slavery.

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The imperialist vision -

British imperialist Cecil Rhodes epitomized the mindset of colonial superiority. He believed it was Britain’s duty to expand, claiming that the more land they controlled, the better it would be for humanity. His vision laid the groundwork for ruthless expansion across Africa.

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The largest empire in history -

By the early 1900s, Britain ruled over 412 million people across vast territories, from Africa to India to Southeast Asia. At its peak, it controlled more than 26% of the world's landmass, making it the largest and most powerful empire the world has ever seen.

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The great unraveling -

The same industrial advancements that enabled European dominance were turned against one another in World War I and World War II. The brutality of these conflicts shattered the illusion of European moral superiority and exposed the contradictions within the so-called 'civilized' empires.

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Anti-colonial movements -

As European powers fought among themselves, colonized peoples in Africa saw an opportunity to challenge their rulers. Inspired by Western ideals of democracy and nationalism, educated African elites organized resistance movements that allowed decolonization efforts to gain momentum.

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The fall of colonial rule -

Within decades, European empires collapsed. Countries across Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean gained independence, often through prolonged and bloody resistance.

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The lingering shadows of empire -

Even after independence, Africa was left with the scars of colonial rule—fractured nations, economic dependency, and political instability. The Scramble for Africa may have ended, but its legacy continues to shape the continent to this day.

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The myth of inevitability -

European domination was not inevitable—it was the result of specific historical decisions and innovations that African people did not have at the time. Understanding this history reminds us that global power structures are always shaped by human choices rather than destiny.

Sources: (Britannica) (St John’s College, Cambridge) (BBC)

See also: The fastest growing cities in Africa

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