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The Indus Valley civilization -

Also called the Harappan civilization, the Indus Valley civilization was one of the world’s three earliest urban cultures, existing between 3300 and 1300 BCE. It spanned a vast territory in present-day Pakistan and northwest India, which was the most extensive of all the Bronze Age civilizations.

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The Indus Valley civilization -

Technologically, the civilization was remarkable for urban planning and sanitation: cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were laid out on grid plans with standardized baked-brick architecture and sophisticated drainage systems. Every house, even modest ones, had access to wells and a covered sewer system, an infrastructure far ahead of its time.

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The Indus Valley civilization -

Archaeological evidence shows that the civilization traded extensively with Mesopotamia and Central Asia, using standardized weights and seals across a wide network. Goods like beads, ceramics, and lapis lazuli moved along caravan routes and perhaps maritime routes via the Persian Gulf.

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The Indus Valley civilization -

By around 1900 BCE, the Indus Valley civilization showed signs of gradual decline. Environmental change is a leading explanation: a centuries-long shift in climate reduced the water supply from rivers and weakened the monsoon rains. This led to droughts and the drying up of the local river system that many Indus cities depended on.

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The Minoan civilization -

The Minoans of Crete are often regarded as Europe’s first advanced civilization, noted for their maritime prowess and artistic splendor that helped them survive from around 2000 to 1450 BCE. Centered at grand palace complexes like Knossos and Phaistos, the Minoans built multi-story structures with elaborate plumbing, including one of the world’s earliest flushing toilet systems at Knossos.

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The Minoan civilization -

The Minoans were a maritime trading power. Crete’s strategic position enabled wide trade networks across the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean. They exported olive oil, wine, and crafted goods (like the fine Kamares pottery) and in return obtained precious metals and other raw materials.

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The Minoan civilization -

With a fleet safeguarding their commerce and a prosperous economy funding large building projects, Minoan Crete in its peak could be seen as a thalassocracy (sea empire) that dominated the Aegean world. Their lack of city fortifications suggests they had confidence in naval security and relative peace.

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The Minoan civilization -

One contributing factor that led to the decline of the Minoan civilization was natural disaster: the cataclysmic eruption of the Thera (also called Santorini) volcano around 1600 BCE devastated Crete with ash fallout and tsunamis, crippling Minoan ports and agriculture. The eruption hollowed out the island, and can be seen today.

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The Hittite Empire -

The Hittite Empire emerged in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and became a major military and technological power of the Late Bronze Age. At its height (14th–13th centuries BCE), the Hittite realm spanned most of modern Turkey and extended into Syria, which challenged the Egyptian Empire for supremacy in the Near East.

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The Hittite Empire -

The Hittites were famed for their skilled use of horse-drawn war chariots and advanced metalworking, and they were producing iron artifacts as early as the 14th century BCE, while neighboring powers still relied on bronze. The Hittites certainly had the capacity to remain a major force.

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The Hittite Empire -

The Hittite Empire collapsed shortly after 1200 BCE, amid the broader Bronze Age Collapse. Invasion and warfare played a role in their downfall: records become scarce, but it’s known that the capital city of Hattusa was violently destroyed around 1180 BCE, possibly by marauders.

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The Olmec civilization -

The Olmecs of Mesoamerica flourished in the tropical lowlands of Mexico’s Gulf Coast between 1200 and 400 BCE, and it is often called the “mother culture” of later Middle American civilizations. Despite being among the first complex societies in the Americas, the Olmecs achieved remarkable advancements.

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The Olmec civilization -

The Olmecs are credited with developing one of the earliest known writing systems in the Americas and a sophisticated calendar system, elements of which were adopted and refined by the Maya and others.

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The Olmec civilization -

Economically, the Olmecs created expansive trade networks throughout Mesoamerica. Olmec-style pottery, figurines, and jade carvings have been found far beyond their heartland, which suggests they had major influence as they traded goods like jade, obsidian, ceramics, and even rubber.

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The Olmec civilization -

The classic Olmec civilization mysteriously declined around 400 BCE when its last great center, La Venta, was abandoned. Unlike some civilizations, there’s no evidence of a foreign invasion; instead, scholars suspect a combination of environmental and internal factors led to the Olmec downfall.

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The Nazca civilization -

Between 100 BCE and 800 CE, the Nazca Civilization thrived on the arid southern coast of Peru, and was known for achievements that allowed it to dominate a harsh desert environment. The Nazca are most famous for the Nazca Lines, hundreds of gigantic geoglyphs etched into the desert plateau.

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The Nazca civilization -

Apart from their unique art, the Nazca made significant technological advancements in water management. They built underground aqueduct systems called puquios to tap groundwater and irrigate their fields. This engineering feat allowed the Nazca to sustain agriculture and maintain permanent settlements despite minimal rainfall.

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The Nazca civilization -

Studies indicate that a prolonged drought struck the region around 500 CE and lasted perhaps decades, which would have critically lowered water tables. The Nazca’s successful but delicate irrigation network could not withstand major climate perturbations, and this eventually led to their decline.

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The Khmer Empire -

The Khmer Empire, centered on Angkor in present-day Cambodia, was Southeast Asia’s most powerful empire during the Middle Ages. At its zenith (11th to 13th centuries CE), it ruled over much of mainland Southeast Asia, and was bolstered by extraordinary technological and cultural achievements.

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The Khmer Empire -

The Khmer capital Angkor was a "hydraulic city," since its prosperity rested on a vast and sophisticated water management system. Engineers constructed large reservoirs (called barays) and an intricate network of canals and moats to harness monsoon rains and the floodwaters of the nearby Tonlé Sap lake.

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The Khmer Empire -

The Khmer Empire went into decline in the 14th century, culminating in the abandonment of Angkor in 1431 CE after a Siamese (Thai) invasion. Additionally, Angkor’s water network (built for more regular weather patterns) was damaged by extreme climate volatility whereby the region experienced severe droughts followed by intense monsoon floods.

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The Sumerian civilization -

The Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia (which lasted from 2900 to 2000 BCE) built what is often considered the world’s first civilization in the fertile land of southern Iraq. Organized into city-states like Uruk, Ur, Lagash, and Eridu, the civilization saw an array of innovations that laid the groundwork for future empires.

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The Sumerian civilization -

Technologically, Sumerians introduced or improved fundamental inventions: the potter’s wheel and then the wheel for transport (which revolutionized trade and warfare), the sailing boat for riverine transport, and the ox-drawn plow for agriculture. But perhaps their most famous achievement is the development of writing.

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The Sumerian civilization -

Sumerians also excelled in early mathematics and astronomy: they used a base-60 number system (giving us the 60-minute hour and 360-degree circle) and tracked celestial movements for calendar purposes. If measured by contributions to human progress, Sumer had the potential to remain at the forefront of world civilizations.

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The Sumerian civilization -

Sumerian political independence began to wane after 2000 BCE, due to both internal challenges and foreign conquest. Sumer ultimately fell to outside powers: first the Akkadians (who created the short-lived Akkadian Empire), and then the region was taken over by Amorite rulers from Babylon.

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The Byzantine Empire -

As the continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire was a dominant world power through much of the Middle Ages, excelling in resilience, cultural fluorescence, and military innovation. The empire was centered on Byzantium (modern Istanbul), which sat at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. This gave it great strategic and economic advantages.

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The Byzantine Empire -

The Byzantines lasted between 330 and 1453 CE. Economically, Byzantium (which later became Constantinople) was the richest city in Christendom for much of the early Middle Ages, benefiting from its control of key trade routes. After all, it was the western end of the Silk Road, and all manner of products (like silks, spices, grains, and furs) flowed into the city’s markets.

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The Byzantine Empire -

Militarily, the Byzantines were known for their strategic prowess and defensive strength, especially since they inherited Roman military traditions and adapted them. For instance, they developed Greek fire, a fearsome naval incendiary weapon (first recorded in the 7th century) that allowed Byzantine navies to annihilate larger Arab fleets and defend the capital.

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The Byzantine Empire -

The fall of Constantinople in 1453 was a world-changing event. It marked the end of the Roman Empire after nearly 1,500 years and is often cited as the end of the Middle Ages. Many Greek scholars fled west, bringing precious manuscripts and knowledge that helped ignite the Renaissance in Italy.

Sources: (Britannica) (Discovery) (History.com) (EarthDate) (Smarthistory)

See also: Why the Maya civilization is so fascinating

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