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Sudan -

Amanirenas, the fearless one-eyed queen of Kush, boldly defied Rome's authority. Outraged by taxes imposed by Rome's Egyptian prefect, she led a daring raid. She captured loot, prisoners, and the head of Emperor Augustus' statue.

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A symbolic statement of power -

Back home, Amanirenas buried Augustus' stone head beneath her palace steps to be trampled by all who entered. This was a symbolic act that humiliated Rome and sparked years of fierce clashes with Kushite warriors.

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A warrior leader in the frontline -

Amanirenas fought on the front lines, inspiring her soldiers. Although a battlefield injury cost her her sight in one of her eyes, she remained fearless. Her presence struck terror in the Romans, proving Kush's determination to stay unconquered by the Empire.

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Victory and sovereignty secured -

By 21 BCE, Amanirenas' resilience prevailed. The Egyptian governor conceded. The Treaty of Samos granted Kush's sovereignty. Romans never again attempted conquests of Egypt, leaving Kush free for centuries.

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Scotland -

Caledonia, or modern-day Scotland, proved nearly impossible for the Romans to conquer. Despite three separate attempts, Roman commanders continually failed to secure control over the region.

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Advancing beyond Hadrian's Wall -

Contrary to common belief, the Romans advanced beyond Hadrian's Wall, reaching as far as the Antonine Wall. Built by Emperor Antoninus Pius in 140 CE, it marked Rome's northern border, but offered little protection.

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Caledonian resistance -

The Caledonians disregarded the Antonine Wall (pictured), raiding Roman lands with ease. After two decades, Rome abandoned the wall, retreating to Hadrian's Wall and leaving Scotland alone.

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Iran -

Rome's wars with Parthia, covering modern-day Iran and Iraq, began before the Roman Empire's formation and persisted long after Parthia's fall. The two empires fought in four major conflict cycles.

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Parthian humiliation of Rome -

Parthia repeatedly humiliated Rome, most notably at the Battle of Carrhae, where Roman general Crassus was defeated and executed.

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Trajan's conquest and brief victory -

In 116 CE, Emperor Trajan succeeded in capturing Parthia's capital, Ctesiphon. However, the Roman occupation was short-lived, as revolt broke out the same year, and his successor, Hadrian, withdrew Roman forces.

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The fall of Parthia -

Rome's retreat marked the end of Roman ambitions in the east. Parthia eventually fell, not to Rome, but to the Persian rebel Ardashir, who founded the Sasanian Empire.

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Germany -

Rome's ambition to conquer Germany was met with consistent failure. Germanic tribes resisted Roman expansion, and their eventual sack of Rome (pictured) in 410 CE marked a symbolic turn of fortunes.

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Setbacks -

For centuries, Rome clashed with Germanic tribes, suffering defeats that hindered trade and even cost emperors their lives. These setbacks weakened Roman control over its northern borders.

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The Battle of Teutoburg Forest -

In 9 CE, Rome suffered one of its worst defeats at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. Germanic leader Arminius wiped out three Roman legions, forcing their commander to commit suicide. 

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Roman retaliation and retreat -

Although Roman commander Nero Claudius Drusus sought revenge, Rome's grip on the Germanic territories was lost. The crushing defeat at Teutoburg Forest ensured that Rome would never control the lands beyond the Rhine.

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Yemen -

The Romans admired Yemen, calling it Arabia Felix, or "Happy Arabia," due to its wealth and pleasant climate. This admiration quickly turned into ambition, fueling Roman desire for conquest.

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Rome's ambitions in Yemen -

In 26 BCE, Emperor Augustus ordered Aelius Gallus to march upon Arabia Felix, hoping to bring the prosperous land under Roman control. Gallus was guided by a Nabataean named Syllaeus.

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Second intentions -

Syllaeus, loyal to his Nabataean homeland, led Gallus through Yemen's harshest deserts, choosing barren routes that wore down the Roman army's strength, and protected Nabataea's own trading interests.

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A failed invasion -

Exhausted, starving, and weakened by disease, Gallus' troops arrived in Yemen unable to fight. They retreated in defeat, leaving Arabia Felix unconquered and free from Roman control.

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Ireland -

The Romans called Ireland Hibernia, meaning "land of eternal winter," an uninviting name for an uninviting land.

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Agricola's interest in Ireland -

Roman general Gnaeus Julius Agricola, governor of Britannia from 77 to 84 CE, considered invading Ireland. He gathered intelligence from an Irish prince, believing he could conquer Hibernia with a single legion.

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Ireland unconquered -

Despite Agricola's plans, the invasion never happened. While some speculate he may have briefly landed, no Roman force ever successfully occupied the Emerald Isle.

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Armenia -

Rome repeatedly failed to maintain control of Armenia, despite several attempts, including a brief three-year occupation under Emperor Trajan. However, Armenia's mountainous terrain and political complexity made lasting conquest difficult.

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The tug-of-war between Rome and Parthia -

Armenia's strategic position between Rome and Parthia made it a political prize, with both empires vying for influence. Rome often used diplomacy instead of military conquest to exert control over Armenia.

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Roman influence -

Rather than direct occupation, Rome sought to control Armenia by installing vassal monarchs. Under the Treaty of Rhandeia, a Parthian prince could rule Armenia, but only with Roman approval.

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Armenia caught in the crossfire -

Despite periods of stability under Roman influence, Armenia remained embroiled in the conflict between Rome and Parthia. Each new war between the two empires often dragged Armenia into the turmoil.

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Poland -

In Roman times, modern-day Poland was inhabited by a people known as the Przeworsk. The Romans referred to them as the Lugii, a tribal federation in the region.

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Alliances over conquest -

Rather than attempt to conquer the Lugii, the Romans chose to form alliances. In 92 CE, Emperor Domitian sent 100 horsemen to support them in their battle against the Suebi.

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The Lugii and the Vandals -

Historians speculate that the Lugii may have eventually merged with or become the Vandals. The Vandals would later play a pivotal role in the sack of Rome as the Empire collapsed.

Sources: (Mental Floss) (BBC) (Britannica) 

See also: True stories about ancient Rome they didn't tell you in school

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